Hi!
This is just to remind you that our Tuesday next class will be in the classroom as usual.
Have a nice weekned!!
Cheers!
Armando
Compare & Contrast Essay
13 years ago
Friday, September 3, 2010
Monday, August 24, 2009
WELCOME TO STUDENTS!!
HI! STUDENTS FROM THE 3RD SEMESTER!!!
THIS TIME YOU WILL START CREATING YOUR OWN BLOG!!!
JUST FOLLOW THE INSTRUCTIONS AND BE CREATIVE AND ENJOY WRITING!!!!!
CHEERS!
LUIS ARMANDO
Tuesday, September 4, 2007
Five Minute Workshop: Cohesion in Writing
Five Minute Workshop: Cohesion in Writing
To help students understand the need for clarity in their writing, make clear the relation between the parts of a sentence, between entire sentences, or between paragraphs--that is, make explicit why their writing needs to be cohesive. (Note: Instead of "cohesion," many style books use the term "coherence" to refer to textual relationships, but linguist M. A. K. Halliday distinguishes between "cohesion" and "coherence," whereby "cohesion" is a property of the text and "coherence" is a property of meaning or interpretation.)
You might want to talk with your students about this writing principle in a manner similar to our discussion below.
Readers are confused when a text lacks cohesion. Readers cannot easily follow from one part to another, cannot tell which ideas are most important, and cannot determine how ideas are related. To connect the pieces of a text and to signal their relationship, skilled writers usually make use of five cohesive devices.
Five cohesive devices used in good writing
Pronouns
Repetition of key words and phrases
Transitional expressions
Parallel structures
Old/new information
Consider the readability of these two paragraphs. Paragraph A has only a few cohesive devices; paragraph B has several.
Paragraph A*
The ancient Egyptians were masters of preserving dead bodies. Mummification, which was remarkably effective, consisted of removing the internal organs, applying natural preservatives inside and outside, and wrapping the body in layers of bandages. Mummies several thousands of years old have been discovered nearly intact, with well-preserved skin, hair, teeth, nails and facial features. Mummies may show evidence of diseases such as smallpox, arthritis, and nutritional deficiencies. Fatal afflictions are apparent: a middle-aged Egyptian king died from a blow to the head; a child-king died from polio.
Paragraph B*
The ancient Egyptians were masters of preserving dead bodies by mummifying them. Basically, mummification consisted of removing the internal organs, applying natural preservatives inside and outside, and then wrapping the body in layers of bandages. This process was remarkably effective. Indeed, mummies several thousands of years old have been discovered nearly intact. Their skin, hair, teeth, nails, and facial features are still evident. Their diseases in life, such as smallpox, arthritis, and nutritional deficiencies, are still diagnosable. Even their fatal afflictions are still apparent: a middle-aged Egyptian king died from a blow to the head; a child-king died from polio.
*(paragraphs from Little, Brown Handbook, 4th Edition, p. 87)
Pronouns
Pronouns refer back to nouns or other pronouns, and therefore link sentences together. In paragraph B, the pronoun "their," repeated in the last three sentences, refers back to "mummies" in the preceding sentence, linking all four sentences.
Repetition of key words and phrases
Deliberately repeating a key word, related words, or phrases will weave together the ideas within one or more paragraphs. The repeated words or phrases should be related to the main idea of the text. In paragraph B, the repetition of the words "mummies," "mummification," "mummifying," and "process" tie the paragraph together. The repetition of the word "still" in the last three sentences has the same effect. (It also adds emphasis.)
Transitional expressions
To indicate a connection between ideas, writers can use a wide variety of transitional expressions. Some of these words and word groups are listed below. (Those used in paragraph B are in boldface.)
To show addition--again, also, and, and then, besides, equally important, finally, first, further, furthermore, in addition, in the first place, last, likewise, moreover, next, or, still, then, too.
To compare--also, in comparison, in the same way, likewise, similarly.
To contrast--although, and yet, at the same time, but, conversely, despite, even so, even though, for all that, however, in contrast, in spite of, nevertheless, nonetheless, notwithstanding, on the contrary, on the other hand, otherwise, regardless, still, though, yet.
To give examples or intensify--after all, as an illustration, certainly, even, for example, for instance, indeed, in fact, it is true that, namely, of course, specifically, that is, to be sure, to illustrate, to tell the truth, truly.
To summarize, repeat, or conclude--all in all, all together, as a result, as had been noted, basically, finally, in brief, in conclusion, in other words, in particular, in short, in simpler terms, in summary, on the whole, that is, therefore, to put it differently, to summarize.
To indicate place--above, adjacent to, below, elsewhere, farther on, here, near, nearby, on the other side, opposite to, there, to the east, to the left.
To indicate time--after a while, afterward, as long as, as soon as, at length, at that time, before, currently, earlier, eventually, first (second, third, etc.), finally, formerly, immediately, in the meantime, in the past (future), lately, later, meanwhile, now, presently, shortly, simultaneously, since, so far, soon, still, subsequently, then, thereafter, until, until now, when, while.
To indicate cause and effect--accordingly, as a result, because, consequently, for this purpose, hence, otherwise, since, so, then, therefore, thereupon, thus, to this end, with this object.
Note: While beginning writers often fail to provide enough transitions, some writers pad sentences with unnecessary transitions. Beware transition overkill!
Parallel structures
When a sentence pattern or other grammatical structure is deliberately repeated, we say the writing is parallel. Parallelism suggests similarity of meaning among the repeated elements and thus helps tie them together. In paragraph B, the last three sentences have parallel structures; they are tied together by the repetition of the words "their" and "still" and by the parallel structure of the form, "Their x's are still y."
Old/new information
English is a language with subject-verb-object word order. English is most readable when sentences begin with a subject that refers back to some "old information" in the previous sentence and end with a predicate that provides some "new information."
In paragraph B above, the second sentence begins with a phrase that refers back to the previous sentence: "Basically, mummification" refers back to "mummifying" at the end of the previous sentence. The third sentence begins with the phrase "this process," which refers to mummification in the previous two sentences. Subsequent sentences begin with some "old" information and end with "new" information.
To help students understand the need for clarity in their writing, make clear the relation between the parts of a sentence, between entire sentences, or between paragraphs--that is, make explicit why their writing needs to be cohesive. (Note: Instead of "cohesion," many style books use the term "coherence" to refer to textual relationships, but linguist M. A. K. Halliday distinguishes between "cohesion" and "coherence," whereby "cohesion" is a property of the text and "coherence" is a property of meaning or interpretation.)
You might want to talk with your students about this writing principle in a manner similar to our discussion below.
Readers are confused when a text lacks cohesion. Readers cannot easily follow from one part to another, cannot tell which ideas are most important, and cannot determine how ideas are related. To connect the pieces of a text and to signal their relationship, skilled writers usually make use of five cohesive devices.
Five cohesive devices used in good writing
Pronouns
Repetition of key words and phrases
Transitional expressions
Parallel structures
Old/new information
Consider the readability of these two paragraphs. Paragraph A has only a few cohesive devices; paragraph B has several.
Paragraph A*
The ancient Egyptians were masters of preserving dead bodies. Mummification, which was remarkably effective, consisted of removing the internal organs, applying natural preservatives inside and outside, and wrapping the body in layers of bandages. Mummies several thousands of years old have been discovered nearly intact, with well-preserved skin, hair, teeth, nails and facial features. Mummies may show evidence of diseases such as smallpox, arthritis, and nutritional deficiencies. Fatal afflictions are apparent: a middle-aged Egyptian king died from a blow to the head; a child-king died from polio.
Paragraph B*
The ancient Egyptians were masters of preserving dead bodies by mummifying them. Basically, mummification consisted of removing the internal organs, applying natural preservatives inside and outside, and then wrapping the body in layers of bandages. This process was remarkably effective. Indeed, mummies several thousands of years old have been discovered nearly intact. Their skin, hair, teeth, nails, and facial features are still evident. Their diseases in life, such as smallpox, arthritis, and nutritional deficiencies, are still diagnosable. Even their fatal afflictions are still apparent: a middle-aged Egyptian king died from a blow to the head; a child-king died from polio.
*(paragraphs from Little, Brown Handbook, 4th Edition, p. 87)
Pronouns
Pronouns refer back to nouns or other pronouns, and therefore link sentences together. In paragraph B, the pronoun "their," repeated in the last three sentences, refers back to "mummies" in the preceding sentence, linking all four sentences.
Repetition of key words and phrases
Deliberately repeating a key word, related words, or phrases will weave together the ideas within one or more paragraphs. The repeated words or phrases should be related to the main idea of the text. In paragraph B, the repetition of the words "mummies," "mummification," "mummifying," and "process" tie the paragraph together. The repetition of the word "still" in the last three sentences has the same effect. (It also adds emphasis.)
Transitional expressions
To indicate a connection between ideas, writers can use a wide variety of transitional expressions. Some of these words and word groups are listed below. (Those used in paragraph B are in boldface.)
To show addition--again, also, and, and then, besides, equally important, finally, first, further, furthermore, in addition, in the first place, last, likewise, moreover, next, or, still, then, too.
To compare--also, in comparison, in the same way, likewise, similarly.
To contrast--although, and yet, at the same time, but, conversely, despite, even so, even though, for all that, however, in contrast, in spite of, nevertheless, nonetheless, notwithstanding, on the contrary, on the other hand, otherwise, regardless, still, though, yet.
To give examples or intensify--after all, as an illustration, certainly, even, for example, for instance, indeed, in fact, it is true that, namely, of course, specifically, that is, to be sure, to illustrate, to tell the truth, truly.
To summarize, repeat, or conclude--all in all, all together, as a result, as had been noted, basically, finally, in brief, in conclusion, in other words, in particular, in short, in simpler terms, in summary, on the whole, that is, therefore, to put it differently, to summarize.
To indicate place--above, adjacent to, below, elsewhere, farther on, here, near, nearby, on the other side, opposite to, there, to the east, to the left.
To indicate time--after a while, afterward, as long as, as soon as, at length, at that time, before, currently, earlier, eventually, first (second, third, etc.), finally, formerly, immediately, in the meantime, in the past (future), lately, later, meanwhile, now, presently, shortly, simultaneously, since, so far, soon, still, subsequently, then, thereafter, until, until now, when, while.
To indicate cause and effect--accordingly, as a result, because, consequently, for this purpose, hence, otherwise, since, so, then, therefore, thereupon, thus, to this end, with this object.
Note: While beginning writers often fail to provide enough transitions, some writers pad sentences with unnecessary transitions. Beware transition overkill!
Parallel structures
When a sentence pattern or other grammatical structure is deliberately repeated, we say the writing is parallel. Parallelism suggests similarity of meaning among the repeated elements and thus helps tie them together. In paragraph B, the last three sentences have parallel structures; they are tied together by the repetition of the words "their" and "still" and by the parallel structure of the form, "Their x's are still y."
Old/new information
English is a language with subject-verb-object word order. English is most readable when sentences begin with a subject that refers back to some "old information" in the previous sentence and end with a predicate that provides some "new information."
In paragraph B above, the second sentence begins with a phrase that refers back to the previous sentence: "Basically, mummification" refers back to "mummifying" at the end of the previous sentence. The third sentence begins with the phrase "this process," which refers to mummification in the previous two sentences. Subsequent sentences begin with some "old" information and end with "new" information.
Editing for Writing for Content, Coherence and Cohesion
Editing your writing for content, coherence and cohesion
What is editing?
You should always edit your assignments very carefully before submitting them for assessment. Some
people equate editing with proofreading: checking for grammar, spelling and punctuation mistakes.
This type of editing is important (see the EDU handout Editing your writing for grammar). However,
your assignments will also require another kind of editing. You may not have selected the appropriate
theory and practical examples to respond to the question, or there may not be a smooth flow of ideas.
Before editing your assignments for grammar, punctuation and spelling, you also need to edit them for
content, coherence and cohesion.
What should you do when editing for content?
Read through what you have written and ask yourself:
__Is all the content relevant?
__Is any one section too long?
__Is there anything missing, or anything that is redundant?
__Is the discussion of theory and concepts balanced by use of examples?
__Are references provided for all the ideas and information you have taken from published sources?
What should you do when editing for coherence?
When you are sure the content of your assignment is appropriate, you should edit for coherence – for
the manner in which all the parts of your assignment fit together to make one well connected answer to
the assignment question.
Read through what you have written and ask yourself (or ask a friend to read your writing and tell you):
__Does the assignment make sense to someone who is not in your course?
__Is the argument consistent?
__Are the ideas presented in a logical order?
__Have you made the structure of your argument explicit?
__If there are headings, are they expressed in a parallel form?
__Does each paragraph have one idea and is it expressed clearly in a topic sentence?
__Are there phrases or sentences that provide a clear transition from one paragraph to the next? (It is
often the case that the consistency of the argument is made clear in these transition phrases or
sentences.)
What should you do when editing for cohesion?
Coherence refers to the overall connectedness of the ideas in a piece of writing. Cohesion refers more
specifically to connections between sentences.
There are a number of ways in which you can create cohesion between sentences:
__Transition from old information to new
__Summary words
__Thematic consistency
__Parallel constructions
__Lexical ties
__Transition signals.
Summary words
This also involves transition from old information to new, but instead of beginning the next
sentence with the same or a similar word to the one with which the previous sentence ended, you
begin the new sentence with a word that summarises several words in the previous sentence or the
whole idea. The summary word is usually used together with a reference word such as “this” or
“these”
Example: At any one point in time, there is a fixed amount of labour, land,
capital, and entrepreneurship. These resources can be used to produce
goods and services … (McTaggart et al. 1999, p. 2.4).
Transition from old information to new
Place known information at the beginning of each sentence and place new information at the end of
each sentence. The new information that is placed at the end of the first sentence then becomes
known information to be placed at the beginning of the next sentence.
Example: From the moment you wake each morning to the moment you fall asleep again at night,
your life is filled with choices. Your first choice is when to get up … (McTaggart et al. 1999, p. 1.4).
Thematic consistency
The theme of a sentence is the word or phrase that begins the sentence. If the sentence beginnings all
relate to the main idea of the paragraph it is easier for the reader to focus on that idea.
Example: Scarcity is not poverty. The poor and the rich both face scarcity. A
child wants a 75 cent can of soft drink and a 50 cent chocolate bar but has
only $1 in her pocket. She experiences scarcity. Faced with scarcity, we must
choose among the available alternatives (McTaggart et al. 1999, p. 1.4).
In this passage there are two related themes: one that relates to scarcity and one that relates to the
people who experience it.
Parallel constructions
If sentences in which the ideas are connected have similar patterns it is easier for the reader to see the
relationship between the sentences.
Example: In ordinary speech, the word ‘market’ means a place where people
buy and sell goods such as fish, meat, fruits, and vegetables. In economics, a
market has a more general meaning (McTaggart et al. 1999, p. 2.9).
Lexical ties
The repetition of words or synonyms in a paragraph assists the reader to see the connection between
the sentences.
Example: Markets coordinate individual decisions through price adjustments.
To see how, think about your local market for hamburgers. Suppose that too
few hamburgers are available so that people who want to buy hamburgers
are not able to do so. To make the choices of buyers and sellers compatible,
buyers must scale down their appetites or more hamburgers must be offered
for sale (or both must happen). A rise in the price of hamburgers produces
this outcome. A higher price encourages producers to offer more hamburgers
for sale. It also curbs the appetite for hamburgers and changes some lunch
plans. Fewer people buy hamburgers, and more buy hot dogs. (McTaggart et
al. 1999, p. 2.10).
In this paragraph there are a lot of words that have to do with buying and selling (market, buy, sell,
sale, buyers, sellers, price). There is also another string of related words that have to do with
decisions, choice and plans. And there is a third string that connects with food: hamburgers, appetite,
lunch, hot dogs.
Examples were taken from McTaggart, D. Findlay, C. & Parkin, M. 1999, Economics, 3rd ed., Addison
Wesley Longman, Melbourne.
Transition signals
Transition signals are words or phrases that introduce a sentence and indicate its relationship to the
previous sentence.
Example: The opportunity cost of producing an additional tape is the number of
bottles of cola we must forgo. Similarly, the opportunity cost of producing an
additional bottle of cola is the quantity of tapes we must forgo (McTaggart et al.
1999, p. 3.3).
There are many different transition signals. There are transition signals to indicate sequence; logical
divisions of an idea; time; example; comparison; contrast; addition; opposition and conclusion. Go to
the following sites for lists of transition signals and their meanings:
www.lc.unsw.edu.au/onlib/trans.html
http://webster.commnet.edu/grammar/transitions.htm
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/general/gl_transition.html
NOTE: Be careful in your use of transition signals. A good piece of writing, like a well-constructed
freeway, should not need many signal/signposts to keep the reader on the right track. And if you use the
wrong signal or signpost the result can be disastrous. At all costs you need to avoid sending the readers’
comprehension off in the wrong direction.
Reference words
Reference words are words that point back to words in previous sentences, for example, the, the other,
another, the others, some, this, these, that, those. Comparative expressions can also act as reference
expressions.
Example: A feature of the labour market for young workers is a system of
minimum wage rates that have to be paid. These rates are an example of a
minimum price law…. The minimum wage rate system is a consequence of
government intervention in the labour market…. In other cases, instead of
setting the price, governments fix a quantity…. Even more frequently,
governments impose taxes…. In yet other cases, governments try to ban markets.
Those for drugs like heroin are obvious examples (McTaggart et al. 1999, p.
7.2).
Reference words are very useful cohesive devices. Care should be taken to ensure that their reference is
clear.
What is editing?
You should always edit your assignments very carefully before submitting them for assessment. Some
people equate editing with proofreading: checking for grammar, spelling and punctuation mistakes.
This type of editing is important (see the EDU handout Editing your writing for grammar). However,
your assignments will also require another kind of editing. You may not have selected the appropriate
theory and practical examples to respond to the question, or there may not be a smooth flow of ideas.
Before editing your assignments for grammar, punctuation and spelling, you also need to edit them for
content, coherence and cohesion.
What should you do when editing for content?
Read through what you have written and ask yourself:
__Is all the content relevant?
__Is any one section too long?
__Is there anything missing, or anything that is redundant?
__Is the discussion of theory and concepts balanced by use of examples?
__Are references provided for all the ideas and information you have taken from published sources?
What should you do when editing for coherence?
When you are sure the content of your assignment is appropriate, you should edit for coherence – for
the manner in which all the parts of your assignment fit together to make one well connected answer to
the assignment question.
Read through what you have written and ask yourself (or ask a friend to read your writing and tell you):
__Does the assignment make sense to someone who is not in your course?
__Is the argument consistent?
__Are the ideas presented in a logical order?
__Have you made the structure of your argument explicit?
__If there are headings, are they expressed in a parallel form?
__Does each paragraph have one idea and is it expressed clearly in a topic sentence?
__Are there phrases or sentences that provide a clear transition from one paragraph to the next? (It is
often the case that the consistency of the argument is made clear in these transition phrases or
sentences.)
What should you do when editing for cohesion?
Coherence refers to the overall connectedness of the ideas in a piece of writing. Cohesion refers more
specifically to connections between sentences.
There are a number of ways in which you can create cohesion between sentences:
__Transition from old information to new
__Summary words
__Thematic consistency
__Parallel constructions
__Lexical ties
__Transition signals.
Summary words
This also involves transition from old information to new, but instead of beginning the next
sentence with the same or a similar word to the one with which the previous sentence ended, you
begin the new sentence with a word that summarises several words in the previous sentence or the
whole idea. The summary word is usually used together with a reference word such as “this” or
“these”
Example: At any one point in time, there is a fixed amount of labour, land,
capital, and entrepreneurship. These resources can be used to produce
goods and services … (McTaggart et al. 1999, p. 2.4).
Transition from old information to new
Place known information at the beginning of each sentence and place new information at the end of
each sentence. The new information that is placed at the end of the first sentence then becomes
known information to be placed at the beginning of the next sentence.
Example: From the moment you wake each morning to the moment you fall asleep again at night,
your life is filled with choices. Your first choice is when to get up … (McTaggart et al. 1999, p. 1.4).
Thematic consistency
The theme of a sentence is the word or phrase that begins the sentence. If the sentence beginnings all
relate to the main idea of the paragraph it is easier for the reader to focus on that idea.
Example: Scarcity is not poverty. The poor and the rich both face scarcity. A
child wants a 75 cent can of soft drink and a 50 cent chocolate bar but has
only $1 in her pocket. She experiences scarcity. Faced with scarcity, we must
choose among the available alternatives (McTaggart et al. 1999, p. 1.4).
In this passage there are two related themes: one that relates to scarcity and one that relates to the
people who experience it.
Parallel constructions
If sentences in which the ideas are connected have similar patterns it is easier for the reader to see the
relationship between the sentences.
Example: In ordinary speech, the word ‘market’ means a place where people
buy and sell goods such as fish, meat, fruits, and vegetables. In economics, a
market has a more general meaning (McTaggart et al. 1999, p. 2.9).
Lexical ties
The repetition of words or synonyms in a paragraph assists the reader to see the connection between
the sentences.
Example: Markets coordinate individual decisions through price adjustments.
To see how, think about your local market for hamburgers. Suppose that too
few hamburgers are available so that people who want to buy hamburgers
are not able to do so. To make the choices of buyers and sellers compatible,
buyers must scale down their appetites or more hamburgers must be offered
for sale (or both must happen). A rise in the price of hamburgers produces
this outcome. A higher price encourages producers to offer more hamburgers
for sale. It also curbs the appetite for hamburgers and changes some lunch
plans. Fewer people buy hamburgers, and more buy hot dogs. (McTaggart et
al. 1999, p. 2.10).
In this paragraph there are a lot of words that have to do with buying and selling (market, buy, sell,
sale, buyers, sellers, price). There is also another string of related words that have to do with
decisions, choice and plans. And there is a third string that connects with food: hamburgers, appetite,
lunch, hot dogs.
Examples were taken from McTaggart, D. Findlay, C. & Parkin, M. 1999, Economics, 3rd ed., Addison
Wesley Longman, Melbourne.
Transition signals
Transition signals are words or phrases that introduce a sentence and indicate its relationship to the
previous sentence.
Example: The opportunity cost of producing an additional tape is the number of
bottles of cola we must forgo. Similarly, the opportunity cost of producing an
additional bottle of cola is the quantity of tapes we must forgo (McTaggart et al.
1999, p. 3.3).
There are many different transition signals. There are transition signals to indicate sequence; logical
divisions of an idea; time; example; comparison; contrast; addition; opposition and conclusion. Go to
the following sites for lists of transition signals and their meanings:
www.lc.unsw.edu.au/onlib/trans.html
http://webster.commnet.edu/grammar/transitions.htm
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/general/gl_transition.html
NOTE: Be careful in your use of transition signals. A good piece of writing, like a well-constructed
freeway, should not need many signal/signposts to keep the reader on the right track. And if you use the
wrong signal or signpost the result can be disastrous. At all costs you need to avoid sending the readers’
comprehension off in the wrong direction.
Reference words
Reference words are words that point back to words in previous sentences, for example, the, the other,
another, the others, some, this, these, that, those. Comparative expressions can also act as reference
expressions.
Example: A feature of the labour market for young workers is a system of
minimum wage rates that have to be paid. These rates are an example of a
minimum price law…. The minimum wage rate system is a consequence of
government intervention in the labour market…. In other cases, instead of
setting the price, governments fix a quantity…. Even more frequently,
governments impose taxes…. In yet other cases, governments try to ban markets.
Those for drugs like heroin are obvious examples (McTaggart et al. 1999, p.
7.2).
Reference words are very useful cohesive devices. Care should be taken to ensure that their reference is
clear.
Wednesday, August 22, 2007
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